J. Dairy Sci. 2008. 91:3128-3137. doi:10.3168/jds.2007-0950
© 2008 American Dairy Science Association ®
Effects of Feeding Different Carbohydrate Sources and Amounts to Young Calves
T. M. Hill1,
H. G. Bateman, II,
J. M. Aldrich and
R. L. Schlotterbeck
Akey, Nutrition and Research Center, PO Box 5002, Lewisburg, OH 45338
1 Corresponding author: mhill{at}akey.com.
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ABSTRACT
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Corn, oats, molasses, and soyhulls are commonly used carbohydrate sources in calf starters. A total of 180 calves were used in 4 studies to compare the use of these ingredients in calf starters. Study 1 compared textured starters with different amounts of molasses or sucrose. The control starter contained 5% molasses (A). The test starters contained greater concentrations of dietary sugar than starter A as either 10% molasses (B) or 5% molasses plus 1.5% granular sucrose (C). Starters B and C were equal in dietary sugar. Study 2 evaluated textured starters containing 0 or 25% whole oats for calves up to approximately 12 wk old. Study 3 evaluated pelleted starters containing 0 or 62.75% soyhulls for calves up to approximately 8 wk old. Study 4 evaluated textured starters containing 0, 14, 28, and 42% soyhulls for calves between approximately 8 and 12 wk old. Calves were housed in individual pens in an unheated nursery with curtain sides through 8 wk and then in group pens of 6 calves/pen from 8 to 12 wk. Calves were bedded with straw. In study 1, calves fed the starters with extra molasses or sucrose had an average of 9% slower average daily gain (ADG) and greater average fecal scores from 42 to 56 d and 9% slower ADG from 0 to 56 d than calves fed the textured starter with low molasses. In study 2, ADG and feed efficiency (kg of feed/kg of gain) were 22 and 20% less, respectively, in calves fed the starter without oats from 0 to 28 d, but there were no differences thereafter. In study 3, calves fed starters with soyhulls had a 10% slower ADG and 8% lower efficiency of gain from 28 to 56 d than calves fed the starters without soyhulls. In study 4, ADG declined linearly as soyhulls increased in the starter. The change in ADG was 14% from 0 to 42% soyhulls. Replacing corn in a starter with molasses, sucrose, or soyhulls reduced postweaning ADG and increased the cost of ADG. Whole oats were an acceptable substitute for corn.
Key Words: calf • carbohydrate • starter • digestible fiber
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INTRODUCTION
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Corn, oats, cane molasses, and soyhulls are commonly used carbohydrate sources in calf starters. In most of the United States, corn is the least expensive grain. Molasses is high in sugar (sucrose, a ruminally fermented carbohydrate; NRC, 2001), is perceived to be to a palatability enhancer, and is used to reduce the appearance of fine particles in calf starters. Oats are also a commonly used ingredient in calf starters because of their perceived palatability and bulkiness. Soy-hulls are a low-cost ingredient much of the time, are digested well by functional ruminants, form hard pellets when pelleted, and are a good source of digestible fiber for the mature ruminant (NRC, 2001).
In the mature dairy cow, emphasis has been placed on maximizing rumen fermentation through feeding various carbohydrates, such as starch, sugar, and digestible fiber (Hall and Herejk, 2001; NRC, 2001). Similarly, for the calf, the NRC (2001) states "the starter should be relatively high in readily fermentable carbohydrates but adequate in digestible fiber to support the fermentation necessary for proper ruminal tissue growth (Brownlee, 1956; Flatt et al., 1958; Williams and Frost, 1992; Greenwood et al., 1997)."
Porter et al. (2007) demonstrated the need for coarse particles and a bulk ingredient in starters fed to calves housed in crates without bedding. Oats, if fed whole or coarsely processed, as is common in commercial starters in the United States, could add bulkiness or coarseness to a starter. Khan et al. (2007) recently reported than an equal amount of starch supplied by corn supports more ADG in calves than starch from oats, barley, or wheat. All of their starters were finely ground and fed with free-choice hay. These calves consumed 25 to 35% hay, which is counterproductive to rumen development and reduces ADG in calves (Warner et al., 1956; Stobo et al., 1966). Thus, their study did not test the value of oats as a bulky ingredient when no hay was fed to potentially optimize rumen development and calf ADG (Warner et al., 1956; Porter et al., 2007).
A high concentration of molasses (12 vs. 6%) has been shown to reduce ADG and increase the incidence of scouring in calves (Lesmeister and Heinrichs, 2005). Additionally, Huber et al. (1961) found the neonatal calf intestine to be void of sucrase. Despite the widespread use of molasses in starters, its use in calf starters is questionable.
Soyhulls are a good source of digestible fiber for the mature ruminant, and digestible fiber may be needed for proper ruminal tissue growth (NRC, 2001). Williams et al. (1987) observed similar ADG in calves fed barley or a citrus and beet pulp combination, but feed efficiency was greater when barley was fed.
The objectives of these studies were to evaluate replacing corn with oats, replacing corn with molasses or molasses and sugar, and replacing corn with soyhulls in calf starters. Four studies were conducted to compare the use of these ingredients in starters fed to calves less than 3 mo old and managed in pens bedded with straw. Our hypothesis was that adding molasses, oats, or soyhulls would reduce ADG of the calves.
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MATERIALS AND METHODS
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Study 1 used 48 Holstein bull calves (40.2 ± 1.2 kg; 12/treatment) <1 wk of age from multiple dairy farms. Study 1 evaluated the concentration of cane molasses and sucrose in starters (Table 1
). The control starter contained 5% molasses (A). The test starters contained greater concentrations of dietary sugar than starter A as either 10% molasses (B) or 5% molasses plus 1.5% granular sucrose (C). Starters B and C were equal in dietary sugar. All starters were formulated to have similar CP, ADF, and mineral concentrations except for starter B, which was higher in K. Starters and fresh water were fed ad libitum throughout the 56-d study. All calves were fed a 20% milk CP, 20% fat milk replacer (MR; Akey White Gold, Akey, Lewisburg, OH) at 0.454 kg/d reconstituted to 3.8 L (0.12 kg/L), halved into a.m. and p.m. feedings for 39 d, followed by 0.227 kg/d for d 40 to 42 (a.m. feeding only). Calves were received after a 10-h transit and immediately fed 0.227 kg of a nutrient and electrolyte product (Critical Care, Akey) reconstituted to 2 L with warm water. Their first MR was fed at the following a.m. feeding. Study 1 was conducted from June through September. The average temperature was 21°C and ranged from 5 to 31°C based on hourly measurements.
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Table 1. Composition and analysis of feeds from study 1 comparing the molasses and sucrose concentrations of the starters
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Study 2 used 48 Holstein bull calves (40.6 ± 1.1 kg; 24/treatment) 3 to 4 d old from one dairy farm. Study 2 compared textured starters containing A) 25% whole oats or B) 0% whole oats (replaced with 23% rolled corn and 2% soybean meal, with minerals balanced between starters) for the 84-d study (Table 2). All calves were fed a 20% milk CP, 20% fat MR (Akey White Gold, Akey) at 0.454 kg/d reconstituted to 3.8 L (0.12 kg/L), halved into a.m. and p.m. feedings for 25 d, followed by 0.227 kg/d for d 26 to 28 (a.m. feeding only). Calves were maintained in individual pens from d 0 to 56 and then grouped into 4 replicate pens of 6 calves from d 56 to 84. Calves were maintained on the same starter for all 84 d. Five percent chopped grass hay was blended with the starters before feeding to the calves from d 56 to 84 in the group pens. Starters and water were fed ad libitum. They were received midday after a 3-h transit and were fed MR at the normal p.m. feeding after arrival. Study 2 was conducted from August through November. The average temperature was 14°C and ranged from –6 to 33°C based on hourly measurements.
Study 3 used 48 Holstein bull calves (41.4 ± 0.8 kg; 24/treatment) that were <1 wk of age from multiple dairy farms. Study 3 compared completely pelleted starters containing A) 0% or B) 62.75% soyhulls (replacing mostly corn and soybean meal with minerals balanced between starters) for the 56-d study (Table 3). All calves were fed a 20% milk CP, 20% fat MR (Akey White Gold, Akey) at 0.454 kg/d reconstituted to 3.8 L (0.12 g/L), halved into a.m. and p.m. feedings for 25 d, followed by 0.227 kg/d for d 26 to 28 (a.m. feeding only). Calves were maintained in individual pens for d 0 to 56. Starters and water were fed ad libitum. Calves were received at approximately 1600 h after a 10-h transit and immediately fed 0.227 kg of a nutrient and electrolyte product (Critical Care, Akey) reconstituted to 2 L with warm water. Their first MR was fed the following a.m. feeding. Study 3 was conducted from April through June. The average temperature was 17°C and ranged from –1 to 30°C based on hourly measurements.
Study 4 used 48 Holstein bull calves (73.1 ± 3.1 kg; 12/treatment) that were 8 to 9 wk old. Study 4 compared textured starters containing A) 0%, B) 14%, C) 28%, or D) 42% soyhulls for the 28-d study. Soyhulls replaced mostly corn and soybean meal with minerals balanced between starters. The starters were textured and consisted of 75% supplement pellets, 20% whole oats, and 5% molasses. Calves were maintained in 4 replicate pens of 6 calves. Five percent chopped grass hay was blended with the starters before feeding. Starters and water were fed ad libitum. They originated from multiple dairies at less than 1 wk of age. Before 9 wk of age, the calves were managed like the calves in study 3. Study 4 was conducted from February through March. The average temperature was 7°C and ranged from –10 to 26°C based on hourly measurements.
In studies 1, 2, and 3, the day after arrival at approximately 1200 h the calves were weighed, blood was sampled from the jugular vein, and serum protein was measured by using a refractometer. Calves were randomly assigned to treatment. Calves were weighed again weekly at approximately 1200 h through d 56 (and d 84 in study 2). In study 4, calves were blocked by previous management and then assigned to pens that were randomly assigned to treatments. Body weights were taken at approximately 1200 h on d 0 and 28. In studies 1, 2, and 3, all calves were housed in individual 1.2 x 2.4 m pens in a curtain sidewall barn with no added heat for 56 d. In study 2, calves were moved to group pens of 6 calves per pen. Study 4 began with calves in group pens of 6 calves per pen. Group pens consisted of 5.5 m2 of outside pen space and 0.9 m2 of inside pen space per calf. The individual pens and inside pen space in the group pens were bedded with straw.
Dry feed offered and refused were weighed daily and averaged by week. Fecal scores were assigned daily based on a 1 to 5 system (1 = normal, thick in consistency; 2 = normal, but less thick; 3 = abnormally thin, but not watery; 4 = watery; 5 = watery with abnormal coloring) while calves were in individual pens and scores were averaged by week. Fecal scores were not made daily for calves in the group pens. Hip widths (measured with a caliper) were measured initially (d 0), the day after weaning, and on d 56 in studies 1, 2, and 3, and also on d 84 in study 2 and d 0 and 28 in study 4.
Calves were cared for by using acceptable practices as described in the Guide for the Care and Use of Agricultural Animals in Agricultural Research and Teaching (FASS, 1999). Vaccines and health protocols were based on the recommendations of a veterinarian. Calves were castrated and dehorned on d 36. Animals that required medication for digestive (subcutaneous ceftiofur sodium, Naxcel, Pharmacia and Upjohn, Kalamazoo, MI) or navel (subcutaneous penicillin G procaine, Agri-Cillin, AgriLabs, St. Joseph, MO) infections were treated per veterinary recommendation and treatments were recorded daily. In studies 1, 2, and 3, digestive infections were diagnosed based on rectal temperatures (>39.5°C), lack of vitality, and fecal scores >2. One calf received medical treatment for an infected navel, whereas all other medical treatments were because of digestive upsets (scouring). All infections were minor and occurred before d 28. An overview of the study treatments and methods can be found in Table A1 in the Appendix.
Approximately 110% of the estimated feeds needed for each study were manufactured at one time. Samples of manufactured feeds were collected from every other bag (22.7 kg) of feed at the time of manufacture. Approximately 120% of the estimated hay needed for each study was purchased at one time and samples were taken from each bale (approximately 20-kg bales). Composites were analyzed (AOAC, 1996) before the animal phase of the studies for DM (oven method 930.15), CP (Kjeldahl method 988.05), fat (MR by using alkaline treatment with the Röse-Gottlieb method 932.06; starters and hay by using diethyl ether extraction, method 2003.05), ash (muffle furnace method 923.03), Ca, P, Na, K, and Mg (dry ashing, acid digestion, analysis by inductively coupled plasma spectrometry, method 985.01). Additionally, the feeds were tested for NDF with ash by the procedure of Van Soest et al. (1991) without sodium sulfite or 
-amylase and ADF with ash (Robertson and Van Soest, 1981). Complete starters were sieved with wet sieving methods (Shaver et al., 1988) by using a vibratory sieve shaker (Fritsch, Oberstein, Germany) and geometric mean particle sizes were determined (American Society of Agricultural Engineers, 1983). Starter formulas with nutrient compositions are reported for each study in Tables 1
, 2, 3, and 4. The chopped hay fed in the group pens of studies 2 and 4 was a mixed, mostly grass hay (timothy, Phleum pratense L.). In study 2, the hay averaged 89.8% DM, 15.3% CP, 34.9% ADF, and 53.1% NDF (DM). Its geometric mean particle size was 2,345 µm, with 19% of the particles greater than 8,000 µm and 76% of the particles greater than 1,180 µm. In study 3, the hay averaged 89.3% DM, 16.3% CP, 32.7% ADF, and 51.8% NDF (DM). Its geometric mean particle size was 2,202 µm, with 18% of the particles greater than 8,000 µm and 75% of the particles greater than 1,180 µm.
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Table 4. Composition and analysis of feeds from study 4 comparing the concentration of soyhulls (from 0 to 42%) in the starter
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Data from each study were analyzed separately by using the MIXED procedure of SAS (version 8, SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC). Studies 1, 2, and 3 were completely randomized designs. Calf within treatment was included as a random effect that was used to test the main effect of treatment. Week was modeled as a repeated measurement by using an autoregressive type 1 covariance structure within pre- and postweaning periods and the overall 56-d study. When the overall F-test for treatment was significant (P < 0.05) in study 1, the following contrast statements were used: the textured diet containing 5% molasses (A) vs. the textured diets with 10% molasses (B) and 5% molasses plus sucrose (C), and the textured diet with 10% molasses (B) vs. the textured diet with 5% molasses plus sucrose (C). Data reported are least squares means for the experimental unit of calf for d 0 to 56 in studies 1, 2, and 3. Study 4 was a randomized complete block design. Block and pen were random effects and treatment was a fixed effect. When the overall F-test for treatment was significant (P < 0.05), linear, quadratic, and cubic contrasts were used to further characterize the means of 0, 14, 28, and 42% soyhull diets. Data reported are least squares means for the experimental unit of pen for d 56 to 84 in study 2 and the 28-d study 4.
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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
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In all studies, there were no differences in the initial measurements (P > 0.05). In study 1, calves fed the textured starters with extra molasses or sucrose had 10% slower ADG (P < 0.03) and greater average fecal scores (P < 0.01) from 42 to 56 d and 9% slower ADG (P < 0.04) from 0 to 56 d compared with calves fed the textured starter with low molasses (Table 5). A similar trend (P < 0.09) existed for ADG and starter intake from 0 to 42 d and starter intake and hip width change from 0 to 56 d. There were no other differences among treatments. These results are consistent with the report of Lesmeister and Heinrichs (2005), who observed differences or trends for reduced ADG and starter intake and more scouring days when calves were fed starters with 12 vs. 6% cane molasses. Reduced ADG and starter intake could be the result of the neonatal calf having limited sucrase production relative to a more mature calf or adult bovine (Huber et al., 1961), leading to a mild nutritional scour and wetter feces (Fallon et al., 1991).
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Table 5. Performance of calves started at less than 1 wk of age and fed starters differing in sugar from molasses or sucrose in study 1
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In study 2 from 0 to 28 d, ADG and efficiency of gain were less (P < 0.02) in calves fed the starter without oats (Table 6). From 0 to 56 d, efficiency of gain tended to be less (P < 0.08) in calves fed the starter without oats. From 28 to 56 d, average fecal score tended to be greater (P < 0.09) in calves fed the starter without oats. Otherwise, there were no differences between calves fed starters with and without oats.
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Table 6. Performance of calves started at approximately 3 d of age and fed textured starters with or without whole oats in study 2
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Khan et al. (2007) reported that calves fed starters equal in starch and calves fed free-choice hay gained faster and gained more efficiency when fed starters with corn versus oats, barley, or wheat. Unlike their data, the calves fed the starter with oats in study 2 gained BW faster from d 1 to 28. However, there was no difference in ADG after d 28. It is interesting that free-choice hay intake accounted for 25 to 35% of the calves’ diet in the study of Khan et al. (2007), confusing the interpretation of their results. Hay has been reported to reduce rumen development (Warner et al., 1956; Stobo et al., 1966), reduce ADG (Warner et al., 1956; Jahn et al., 1970), and alter gut fill and passage rates (Jahn et al., 1970) in calves.
Possibly the starter with oats supported more ADG and efficiency during d 0 to 28 of study 2 than the starter without oats because of the bulk of the oats. This concept of bulk or coarseness enhancing rumen development was demonstrated by Porter et al. (2007). However, oats did not increase the particle size of the diet in study 2. Both diets had geometric mean particle sizes greater than 1,960 µm, with 78% of the particles being greater than 1,180 µm, similar to the coarseness for a starter suggested by Porter et al. (2007) when calves were maintained in elevated stalls without bedding. Additionally, gut fill might have been greater in calves fed oats because of retention of hydrated oat hulls within the immature rumen. This could have artificially increased ADG of the calves fed oats from d 0 to 28. Calves were bedded with straw in study 2, and calves inevitably consume bedding. Thus, the value of coarse, whole oats was not clear in study 2 and their value could have been altered because of the straw bedding. There were no differences in ADG after d 28, and the differences in efficiency of gain from 0 to 56 d were less than 2% and were likely more a function of mathematics than biology. The similar measurements in performance from feeding diets with and without 25% oats in study 2 suggest that oats and corn have similar feeding values for calves.
In study 3, calves fed starters with soyhulls had a 10% lower ADG (P < 0.02) and 8% lower feed efficiency (P < 0.03) from 28 to 56 d than calves fed the starters without soyhulls (Table 7). This led to the calves fed the starters with soyhulls tending (P < 0.06) to have a slower ADG from 0 to 56 d than calves fed the starters without soyhulls.
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Table 7. Performance of calves started at approximately 3 d of age and fed starters1 with or without soyhulls in study 3
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In study 4, calf ADG declined linearly (P < 0.01) as soyhulls increased in the starter (Table 8). The ADG decreased 14% when soyhulls increased from 0 to 42%. Efficiency of gain tended to decrease (P < 0.09) linearly as soyhulls increased in the starter. Other measurements did not differ.
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Table 8. Performance (28 d) of calves started at approximately 59 d of age and fed starters1 with increasing concentrations of soyhulls replacing corn in study 4
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The differences in ADG and efficiency of gain in studies 3 and 4 are likely explained by soyhulls diluting the energy density and digestibility of the diet (Warner et al., 1956). The digestion of nutrients in neonatal calves is similar to that of monogastrics (NRC, 2001). Increasing concentrations of soyhulls in the diets of pigs have been shown to reduce DM and gross energy digestibility and ADG (Zervas and Zijlstra, 2002; Dilger et al., 2004). Although NRC (2001) suggests digestible fiber for a calf starter, it does not list an amount required for the calf. From the results of studies 2 and 3, it does not appear that a calf less than 12 wk old requires more digestible fiber than is provided from the non-soyhull ingredients of the starter.
Maiga et al. (1994) fed calves pelleted diets containing 20% alfalfa from birth to 12 wk of age to compare corn, barley, and whey as ingredients. They reported the best ADG in calves fed corn. Williams et al. (1987) fed 14- to 91-d-old calves diets with 20% ground straw. They observed similar ADG in calves fed barley or a citrus and beet pulp combination, but feed efficiency was greater when barley was fed. In a similar second study, Williams et al. (1987) fed calves barley or beet pulp (without molasses) and reported DM and N digestion to be lower in calves fed beet pulp. Collectively, the research of Maiga et al. (1994) and Williams et al. (1987) suggests that calves fed barley, citrus pulp, or beet pulp will have a lower ADG than calves fed corn and that the digestion of pulp appears lower than that of grain. Again, these data provide little evidence that a digestible fiber source is needed in the diet of a young calf, as suggested by the NRC (2001).
Soyhulls are typically less expensive than corn, whereas molasses and oats are typically more expensive than corn. By using the data from 42 to 56 d in study 3 and assuming that the value of BW gain is $3.30/kg (the value of a bull calf; Holstein heifer calves currently have 3 times this value; USDA, 2007), the economics of performance can be estimated. During this 14-d period, calves fed the 0% soyhull starter gained 1.1 kg (11%) more BW or had $3.63 more value/calf than calves fed the 62% soyhull starter. Starter intake did not differ between the starter treatments and averaged 21.3 kg/calf for the 14-d period. Thus, the soyhull starter would have to be $0.17/kg ($3.63/21.3 kg) less expensive than the no-soyhull starter to break even. Similar estimates applied to the 0 and 42% soyhull starters in study 4 when using the 5.2-kg (14%) difference in BW gain (with a $17.16 value) and 21.3 kg of feed intake/calf. This would mean that the 42% soyhull starter would need to be $0.21/kg less expensive than the 0% soyhull starter to break even. In both cases, the difference in starter costs is unrealistic to achieve in most market conditions and geographic areas. It might be possible to reduce the starter cost by one-third of these amounts, but then the difference in BW gain would have to be one-third of either 11 or 14% (or only about a 4% difference in BW gain).
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CONCLUSIONS
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Under the conditions of these trials, replacing corn in a calf starter with molasses, sucrose, or soyhulls reduced postweaning ADG by 10 to 14%. Whole oats did not reduce ADG and appeared to be an acceptable substitute. Any realistic savings in the cost of a calf starter from using molasses, sucrose, or soyhulls to replace corn will have a negative economic impact when 9 to 14% of BW gain is lost.
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APPENDIX
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Received for publication December 14, 2007.
Accepted for publication April 15, 2008.
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ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
