J. Dairy Sci. 88:3101-3114
© American Dairy Science Association, 2005.
Chymosin-Mediated Proteolysis, Calcium Solubilization, and Texture Development During the Ripening of Cheddar Cheese
J. A. O’Mahony1,2,
J. A. Lucey2 and
P. L. H. McSweeney1
1 Department of Food and Nutritional Sciences, University College, Cork, Ireland
2 Department of Food Science, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1605 Linden Drive, Madison 53706
Corresponding author: Paul McSweeney; e-mail: p.mcsweeney{at}ucc.ie.
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ABSTRACT
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Full fat, milled-curd Cheddar cheeses (2 kg) were manufactured with 0.0 (control), 0.1, 1.0, or 10.0 µmol of pepstatin (a potent competitive inhibitor of chymosin) added per liter of curds/whey mixture at the start of cooking to obtain residual chymosin levels that were 100, 89, 55, and 16% of the activity in the control cheese, respectively. The cheeses were ripened at 8°C for 180 d. There were no significant differences in the pH values of the cheeses; however, the moisture content of the cheeses decreased with increasing level of pepstatin addition. The levels of pH 4.6-soluble nitrogen in the 3 cheeses with added pepstatin were significantly lower than that of the control cheese at 1 d and throughout ripening. Densitometric analysis of urea-PAGE electro-phoretograms of the pH 4.6-insoluble fractions of the cheese made with 10.0 µmol/L of pepstatin showed complete inhibition of hydrolysis of 
S1-casein (CN) at Phe23-Phe24 at all stages of ripening. The level of insoluble calcium in each of 4 cheeses decreased significantly during the first 21 d of ripening, irrespective of the level of pepstatin addition. Concurrently, there was a significant reduction in hardness in each of the 4 cheeses during the first 21 d of ripening. The softening of texture was more highly correlated with the level of insoluble calcium than with the level of intact S1-CN in each of the 4 cheeses early in ripening. It is concluded that hydrolysis of S1-CN at Phe23-Phe24 is not a prerequisite for softening of Cheddar cheese during the early stages of ripening. We propose that this softening of texture is principally due to the partial solubilization of colloidal calcium phosphate associated with the para-CN matrix of the curd.
Key Words: proteolysis • texture • Cheddar cheese • insoluble calcium
Abbreviation key: CCP = colloidal calcium phosphate, FAA = free amino acids, LAB = lactic acid bacteria, NSLAB = nonstarter lactic acid bacteria, PC = principal component, RP = reversed phase, SN = soluble nitrogen, TPA = texture profile analysis.
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INTRODUCTION
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The ripening of Cheddar cheese involves a concerted series of microbiological, biochemical, and physicochemical changes that are collectively responsible for the development of its characteristic texture, flavor, and aroma (Fox, 1993; McSweeney, 2004). Cheddar cheese ripening is widely considered an enzymatic process (Fox and Law, 1991), being mediated, to varying extents, by each of the following agents: residual coagulant (usualy chymosin in the case of Cheddar cheese), indigenous milk enzymes, starter bacteria and their enzymes, nonstarter lactic acid bacteria (NSLAB) and their enzymes, secondary microorganisms and their enzymes and, in some cases, exogenous enzymes (Fox et al., 2000). Texture is one of the primary quality attributes of Cheddar cheese, with its development being inextricably linked with the biochemical and physicochemical changes that occur during ripening (see Lucey et al., 2003). To date, the exact mechanisms responsible for texture development in Cheddar cheese during ripening have not been elucidated fully.
The development of Cheddar cheese texture during ripening has been thought to depend upon the extent of proteolysis and classically has been divided into 2 phases (Lawrence et al., 1987, 2004). The primary phase occurs during the first 2 to 4 wk and involves weakening of the para-casein network of the curd, and ultimately results in softening of texture. The secondary phase occurs for the duration of ripening and involves more gradual changes in texture due to change in pH (if there is a change) and continued proteolysis (Lawrence et al., 1987, 2004; Guinee, 2003). One of the more salient effects of proteolysis on cheese texture is that hydrolysis of peptide bonds releases 2 new charged groups (NH3+/COO–) that compete for water, reducing the "free" water content of maturing Cheddar cheese curd (Creamer and Olson, 1982; Lawrence et al., 1987, 2004; Irudayaraj et al., 1999; Guinee, 2003; Lucey et al., 2003).
More than 20 yr ago, it was hypothesized that chymosin-mediated cleavage of the Phe23-Phe24 peptide bond of S1-CN was responsible for the significant softening (decreased elasticity, hardness, and force at yield point) observed in Cheddar cheese texture during the early stages of ripening (Creamer and Olson, 1982). Both the N- and C-terminal regions of the S1-CN molecule are strongly hydrophobic (Horne, 1998; De Kruif and Holt, 2003); thus, hydrolysis of Phe23-Phe24 would be expected to decrease the surface hydrophobicity of the S1-CN molecule by removal of the hydrophobic peptide S1-CN (f1-23). Creamer et al. (1982) suggested that the loss of a hydrophobic interaction site on the S1-CN molecule between residues 14 and 24, caused by cleavage at Phe23-Phe24, might be responsible for the initial softening of Cheddar cheese texture. Such hydrolysis of S1-CN yields 2 peptides; S1-CN (f1-23) and S1-CN (f24-199) (Carles and Ribadeau-Dumas, 1985; McSweeney et al., 1993). The former peptide is rapidly hydrolyzed by proteinases of the starter micro-organisms (Visser, 1993), whereas the latter peptide undergoes further hydrolysis, initially at Leu101-Lys102 (McSweeney et al., 1993).
Applying the model proposed by Horne (1998) for CN micelle structure to cheese, it appears that the para-CN matrix of Cheddar cheese is stabilized by the combined effects of hydrophobic interactions between groups on different CN molecules and chain crosslinking mediated by colloidal calcium phosphate (CCP) nanoclusters (Horne, 1998; Lucey et al., 2003). The S1-CN molecule has 8/9 phosphoserine residues with 2 phosphate centers at residues 41–51 and 61–70 (Davies and Law, 1977; De Kruif and Holt, 2003); thus, the peptide S1-CN (f1-23) is devoid of potential CCP crosslinking sites. Consequently, the interactions (primarily hydrophobic in nature) responsible for association of the N-terminal region of S1-CN with the para-CN matrix of the curd may not be sufficiently strong to retain the associations when S1-CN is hydrolyzed at Phe23-Phe24. Evidence of this may be drawn from the rapid rate with which lactococcal proteinases are capable of hydrolyzing S1-CN (f1-23) (once liberated) in cheese, with the accumulation of hydrolysis products S1-CN (f1-9) and S1-CN (f1-13) in water-soluble extracts of Cheddar cheese (Singh et al., 1994).
Calcium associated with the CN particles (i.e., CCP) is considered an important structural component in Cheddar cheese (Lucey and Fox, 1993) and any reduction in the concentration of this form of calcium would be expected to alter cheese texture (Lucey et al., 2003, 2005). It has recently been reported that there is an appreciable reduction in the amount of calcium associated with the CN particles of Cheddar cheese during the early stages of ripening (Hassan et al., 2004).
We propose that hydrolysis of S1-CN at Phe23-Phe24 by chymosin and the softening of Cheddar cheese texture early in ripening are concurrent, rather than interdependent, processes. We believe that some physicochemical change, such as a reduction in the amount of calcium associated with CN particles, may be responsible for this initial softening. To investigate this hypothesis, full fat, milled-curd Cheddar cheeses were manufactured with 0.1, 1.0, or 10.0 µmol of pepstatin (a potent competitive inhibitor of chymosin) added per liter of curds/whey mixture at the start of cooking to inhibit hydrolysis of S1-CN at Phe23-Phe24. Proteolysis and changes in the type of calcium (conversion of insoluble to soluble form) in these cheeses, and their textural properties were then determined to evaluate if texture changes would still occur when chymosin-mediated hydrolysis of S1-CN was completely inhibited.
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MATERIALS AND METHODS
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Cheese Manufacture
Whole milk (3.5% fat; CN:fat = 0.70:1.0) was pasteurized (72°C for 15 s), cooled to 4°C, and stored at 4°C for 18 h before cheese making. Cheddar cheeses were manufactured according to a standard protocol (Fox et al., 2000) on a 20-L pilot-scale in the food processing facilities at University College, Cork, Ireland. Lactococcus lactis spp. lactis UC317, obtained from the Microbiology Department, University College, Cork and grown in sterile, reconstituted (10% wt/vol) skim milk, was used as the starter culture at a level of 2% (vol/vol). Chymosin (Maxiren-180, DSM Food Specialties, Delft, Holland) at 180 IMCU/mL was added to the cheesemilk at a level of 0.3 mL/L. Pepstatin (Peptide Institute, Osaka, Japan) was added at 3 levels (0.1, 1.0, or 10.0 µmol/L) to the curds/whey mixture at the start of cooking and evenly distributed by continuous stirring during cooking. The whey was drained at pH 6.2 approximately 45 min after pepstatin addition. After pressing at 150 kPa for 18 h, the cheeses were vacuum packaged and ripened at 8°C for 180 d.
Chemical Composition
The composition and pH of Cheddar cheeses made with 0.0 (control), 0.1, 1.0, or 10.0 µmol/L of pepstatin was determined 21 d postmanufacture as described by O’Mahony et al. (2003); moisture was determined by oven drying at 102°C (IDF, 1982), protein by macro-Kjeldahl (IDF, 1986), fat by Gerber (IIRS, 1955), and salt by potentiometric titration (Fox, 1963). The total calcium content of the cheeses was determined using atomic absorption spectroscopy as described by IDF (2003). All analyses were conducted in triplicate.
Determination of Residual Chymosin Activity
The level of residual chymosin activity in the cheeses was determined using a synthetic heptapeptide as substrate (Pro-Thr-Glu-Phe-[NO2-Phe]-Arg-Leu) as described by Hurley et al. (1999), with one minor modification. The time allowed for incubation of substrate with a citrate dispersion of the cheese was increased from 4 to 24 h to facilitate accurate quantification of the product peptide ([NO2-Phe]-Arg-Leu). The area of the peak corresponding to the product peptide was used to express the residual chymosin activity of the pepstatin-treated cheeses as a percentage of that in the control cheese (0.0 µmol/L of pepstatin). The stability of the chymosin-pepstatin complex in the experimental cheeses during ripening was evaluated by determining the residual chymosin activity in the control and pepstatin-treated cheeses at 1, 21, 42, 90, 120, and 180 d of ripening. All analyses were conducted in triplicate.
Proteolysis
The pH 4.6-soluble and -insoluble fractions of the cheeses were prepared by the method of Kuchroo and Fox (1982), as modified slightly by Sousa and McSweeney (2001). The N content of the pH 4.6-soluble fraction was determined by the macro-Kjeldahl method (IDF, 1986). Ethanol (70%)-soluble subfractions of the pH 4.6-soluble extracts were prepared according to the method described by Sousa and McSweeney (2001). Urea-PAGE (12.5% T, 4% C, pH 8.9) of the pH 4.6-insoluble fractions of the cheeses was performed using the procedure of Andrews (1983), as modified by Shalabi and Fox (1987). The gels were stained directly with Coomassie Brilliant Blue G250, as described by Blakesley and Boezi (1977), destained in several changes of distilled water, and scanned on a flatbed scanner (Scanjet 6300C, Hewlett Packard, Singapore). Densitometric analysis was performed on the scanned image using gel analysis software (TotalLab 1D, Nonlinear Dynamix, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK). Peptide profiles of the ethanol-soluble fractions of each of the cheeses were determined by reversed-phase (RP) HPLC according to the method described by Sousa and McSweeney (2001). Total free amino acids (FAA) were determined by the trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid assay (Polychroniadou, 1988). Individual FAA were determined using the method described by Fenelon et al. (2000).
Determination of the Proportions of Soluble and Insoluble Calcium
The proportion of total calcium in the insoluble form (i.e., CCP) in Cheddar cheese made with 0.0 (control), 0.1, 1.0 or 10.0 µmol/L pepstatin was determined at 1, 21, 42, 90, 120, and 180 d of ripening using the acid-base titration method described by Hassan et al. (2004).
Measurement of Texture Properties
Texture profile analysis (TPA) of the cheeses was performed using a TA-XT2i texture analyzer (Stable Micro Systems, Godalming, Surrey, UK). Two cylindrical cores (height ~60 to 70 mm, diameter 20 mm), obtained from each cheese using a stainless steel borer, were placed in airtight plastic bags and equilibrated at 8°C for 18 h. Three cylindrical samples (height 10 mm, diameter 20 mm) were cut from each of the 2 original cheese cylinders using a stainless steel wire cutter and equilibrated at 8°C for a further 30 min before analysis. Samples were removed from the incubator and immediately compressed to 25% of the original height in 2 consecutive cycles (i.e., double compression) at a rate of 1 mm/s. Hardness was defined as the force required to compress the cheese sample to 25% of its original height during the first compression cycle. Cohesiveness was defined as the ratio of the area under the positive region (during application of force) of the second compression curve to that of the first compression curve. Springiness was defined as the ratio of the time taken to compress the sample to 25% of its original height during the second compression cycle to that of the first compression cycle. Chewiness was defined as the product of gumminess and springiness, where gumminess is defined as the product of hardness and cohesiveness (Bourne, 1978).
Statistical Analyses
One-way ANOVA of data for the composition, levels of pH 4.6-soluble nitrogen (SN), total FAA, insoluble calcium, and TPA analysis of the cheeses was conducted using SPSS Version 11.0 for Windows XP (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL). Pearson’s correlation coefficients were determined between the response variables (i.e., intact S1-CN, intact ß-CN, levels of pH 4.6-SN, total FAA, insoluble calcium, and hardness) using SAS, version 8.02 (SAS Institute, 1999). To illustrate the trends in selected response variables measured over time (i.e., levels of pH 4.6-SN, total FAA, and hardness) for each of the 3 trials, the experimental design was a split plot with 3 replicates for each variable except for hardness, which had 5 replicates. The main plot factor was treatment (i.e., level of pepstatin addition) and the subplot factor was ripening time. The data for each trial were analyzed separately. The ANOVA for the split-plot design was performed using a GLM procedure of SAS. The data from RP-HPLC chromatographic analysis of the ethanol-soluble fractions of the cheeses were analyzed using multivariate statistical techniques to evaluate the effect of pepstatin addition on liberation of peptides during ripening. The variables (peak height data) were preprocessed according to the method of Piraino et al. (2004). The output from this preprocessing consisted of classes of retention time within which peak heights were accumulated using the distance from center of class as a weight. Principal component (PC) analysis and hierarchical cluster analysis were then performed on the data using a covariance matrix and the between-groups linkage cluster method, respectively, using SPSS. When treatment effects were significant (P 
0.05), the differences between means were analyzed using Tukey’s HSD posthoc test.
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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
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Residual Chymosin Activity and Stability of Chymosin-Pepstatin Complex
Reversed phase-HPLC analysis of citrate dispersions of cheeses incubated with the synthetic heptapeptide substrate showed that residual chymosin activity decreased significantly (P 0.05) as the level of pepstatin addition increased in each of the 3 trials (Table 1
). It is clear from Table 1 that there was some variation between trials in the extent of inactivation of chymosin achieved in the cheeses with added pepstatin, which was most likely due to differences in the dispersion or diffusion of pepstatin into the curd particles before whey drainage on different days of manufacture. For this reason, unless otherwise stated, the data presented in each of the following tables and figures pertain to trial 1 only. Cheddar cheeses made with 0.1, 1.0, or 10.0 µmol/L of pepstatin in trial 1 had levels of residual chymosin activity that were 89, 55, and 16% of the activity in the control cheese, respectively, at 21 d of ripening (Table 1). The ANOVA results (i.e., mean squares and probability values) for the split-plot experimental design confirmed that the trends observed for the response variables were identical in each of the 3 trials (data not shown). Pepstatin forms a 1:1 complex with pepsin by binding to the active site of the enzyme (McKown et al., 1974); presumably the same mechanism is true for the pepstatin-mediated inhibition of chymosin. Inhibition of aspartyl proteinases by pepstatin involves 2 distinct phases: (1) rapid formation of an enzyme-inhibitor complex (collision complex) followed by (2) slow transformation of the collision complex to a more tightly bound complex (tightened complex) (Rich and Sun, 1980). The formation of the tightened complex is reversible with both formation and dissociation reactions obeying first-order kinetics (Rich and Sun, 1980). In this study, by measuring residual chymosin activity in the control and pepstatin-treated cheeses at 1, 21, 42, 90, 120, and 180 d of ripening, it was shown that the chymosin-pepstatin complex was extremely stable during ripening, at all levels of pepstatin addition to the curds/whey mixture (data not shown).
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Table 1. Residual chymosin activity (expressed as a % of that in the control cheese) for Cheddar cheeses made with 0.0 (control), 0.1, 1.0, or 10.0 µmol/L of added pepstatin at 21 d of ripening (data from trials 1, 2, and 3).
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Cheese Composition
The composition and pH of Cheddar cheeses made with 0.0 (control), 0.1, 1.0, or 10.0 µmol/L of pepstatin are shown in Table 2. The values for pH, moisture, protein, and salt contents were in the ranges 5.20 to 5.27, 37.8 to 39.5%, 21.1 to 22.6%, and 1.13 to 1.31%, respectively. The salt content of each of the 4 cheeses was slightly lower than that typical of Cheddar cheese (Fox et al., 2000); however, there were no significant (P > 0.05) differences in the salt content between any of the cheeses made with added pepstatin (0.1, 1.0, or 10.0 µmol/L). Interestingly, the moisture content of the cheeses decreased with increasing level of pepstatin addition. The moisture content of the cheeses made with 1.0 and 10.0 µmol/L of pepstatin was significantly (P 0.05) lower than that of the control cheese. Shakeel-Ur-Rehman et al. (1998) manufactured miniature Cheddar cheeses with 0.0, 7.5, 15.0, or 30.0 µmol/L of pepstatin and the results showed no gross differences between the moisture content of any of the cheeses. The lower moisture content of the cheeses manufactured with added pepstatin was possibly due to the enhanced syneresis properties of Cheddar cheese curd made with added pepstatin. Syneresis involves contraction of the para-CN matrix of the gel/curd (due to protein rearrangement), with concomitant expulsion of whey (Walstra et al., 1987). The proteolytic action of chymosin on the caseins (i.e., in control cheese) may have reduced the ability of the para-CN matrix of the gel/ curd to contract and thus retain more moisture than the pepstatin-treated cheeses. As a consequence of the decrease in moisture, the levels of fat-in-dry-matter decreased with increasing level of pepstatin addition. The ash and calcium levels ranged from 3.65 to 3.86% and 811 to 862 mg/100 g of cheese, respectively, and were typical of Cheddar cheese (Fox et al., 2000; Hassan et al., 2004). The salt-in-moisture content of each of the 4 cheeses was slightly lower than that typical of Cheddar cheese (Fox et al., 2000); however, there were no significant (P > 0.05) differences in the salt-in-moisture content between any of the cheeses made with added pepstatin. There were no significant (P > 0.05) changes in pH during ripening for any of the 4 cheeses (not shown).
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Table 2. Composition and pH of Cheddar cheeses made with 0.0 (control), 0.1, 1.0, or 10.0 µmol/L added pepstatin at 21 d of ripening.
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Proteolysis
pH 4.6-SN as a percentage of total nitrogen.
The level of pH4.6-SN/total N (TN) in each of the 3 cheeses made with added pepstatin was significantly (P 0.05) lower than that of the control cheese at 1 d of ripening (Table 3). It appears that extensive inactivation of chymosin, after completion of the rennet coagulation step of cheese manufacture, was responsible for the ~24% reduction in the level of pH 4.6-SN/TN at 1 d postmanufacture. This highlights the importance of chymosin in CN hydrolysis in these cheeses during the interval between completion of rennet coagulation of the milk and vacuum packaging of the cheese, which was approximately 20 h for this pilot-scale process. Indeed, the presence of the peptide S1-CN (f24 -199) in some hard cheese varieties (e.g., Grana Padano), early in ripening, has been attributed to chymosin action early in manufacture but before inactivation by high cooking temperatures (Gaiaschi et al., 2000). The level of pH 4.6-SN/ TN increased with increasing ripening time in each of the 4 cheeses. The extent of the increase in pH 4.6-SN/ TN levels during ripening was greatest in the control cheese. In fact, the level of pH 4.6-SN/TN in the control cheese was approximately twice that of the cheese made with 10.0 µmol/L pepstatin after only 21 d of ripening. It is clear that the greatest divergence between the cheeses in terms of development of pH 4.6-SN occurred during the first 21 d of ripening and was critical in determining the ultimate (180 d) level of pH 4.6-SN in the cheeses. During the first 21 d of ripening, the level of pH 4.6-SN/TN increased by 6.06, 2.96, 1.22, and 0.76% in cheeses made with 0.0 (control), 0.1, 1.0, or 10.0 µmol/L pepstatin, respectively. The corresponding values for the increase in the level of pH 4.6-SN/TN between 21 and 180 d of ripening were 13.4, 9.50, 6.66, and 5.38%, respectively. These results show that the extent of the increase in pH 4.6-SN/TN level in the control cheese was approximately 2, 5, and 8 times that in cheeses made with 0.1, 1.0, or 10.0 µmol/L pepstatin during the first 21 d of ripening. The levels of pH 4.6-SN/TN increased at a constant rate in each of the 4 cheeses between 21 and 180 d of ripening, which supports the earlier results showing that the chymosin-pepstatin complex was extremely stable throughout ripening, irrespective of the level of pepstatin added. Similar trends were evident for development of pH 4.6-SN in each of the other 2 trials, with pH 4.6-SN/TN levels being significantly (P < 0.0001) affected by level of pepstatin addition and ripening time. The interaction between level of pepstatin addition and ripening time was also significant (P < 0.0001) in determining the levels of pH 4.6-SN/TN in the 4 cheeses across each of the 3 trials. The level of residual chymosin activity remained constant in each of the 4 cheeses throughout ripening; however, the rate of primary proteolysis (as monitored by levels of pH 4.6-SN/TN) varied greatly with stage of ripening, with the rate being greatest during the early stages of ripening. This pattern in the rate of development of pH 4.6-SN/TN in the control cheese during ripening is in agreement with other authors (Lane et al., 1997; Fox et al., 2000; Lucey et al., 2005).
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Table 3. Levels of pH 4.6-soluble nitrogen (SN) expressed as a percentage of total nitrogen (TN) and total free amino acids for Cheddar cheeses made with 0.0 (control), 0.1, 1.0, or 10.0 µmol/L added pepstatin at 1, 21, 42, 90, 120, and 180 d of ripening.1
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Urea-PAGE
Altering the level of residual chymosin activity by addition of pepstatin caused large quantitative differences in the degree of hydrolysis of S1-CN in the experimental cheeses, whereas the breakdown of ß-CN was unaffected. The levels of intact S1- and ß-CN in cheeses made with 0.0 (control), 0.1, 1.0, or 10.0 µmol/L pepstatin at 1, 21, 42, 90, 120, and 180 d of ripening are shown in Figure 1. ß-Casein was hydrolyzed to approximately the same extent in each of the 4 cheeses (Figure 1b), with levels of intact ß-CN ranging from 70.1 to 75.9% for cheeses made with 1.0 or 10.0 µmol/L pepstatin, respectively, at 180 d of ripening. As expected, the 3 principal breakdown products of ß-CN were ß-CN (f29-209), ß-CN (f106-209), and ß-CN (f108-209); that is ,
1-, 2-, and 3-CN, respectively. These peptides are liberated from ß-CN by plasmin (Bastian and Brown, 1996), the activity of which is unaffected by pepstatin.
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Figure 1. Levels of intact S1-casein (A) and ß-casein (B) in Cheddar cheeses made with 0.0 (control) (•), 0.1 ( ), 1.0 ( ), or 10.0 ( ) µmol/L added pepstatin at 1, 21, 42, 90, 120, and 180 d of ripening. Also shown (C) is the pixel intensity (volume) of the band corresponding to the S1-CN (f24-199) peptide for Cheddar cheeses made with 0.0 (control), 0.1, or 1.0 µmol/L added pepstatin at 1, 21, 42, 90, 120, and 180 d of ripening. The peptide S1-CN (f24- 199) was not detected in Cheddar cheese made with 10.0 µmol/L added pepstatin at any stage of ripening.
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In the control cheese, S1-CN was extensively hydrolyzed during ripening, with the rate of hydrolysis being most rapid during the first 21 d (Figure 1a
). The primary cleavage site of chymosin on S1-CN in Cheddar cheese during ripening is the Phe23-Phe24 peptide bond, releasing S1-CN (f1-23) and S1-CN (f24-199) (Carles and Ribadeau Dumas, 1985; McSweeney et al., 1993). The former peptide is rapidly hydrolyzed by proteinases of starter microorganisms (Visser, 1993), whereas the latter peptide undergoes further hydrolysis, initially at Leu101-Lys102, producing the peptide S1- CN(f102-199) (McSweeney et al., 1993). In this study, S1-CN (f24-199) accumulated in the control cheese up to 42 d of ripening (Figure 1c), after which the rate of breakdown was greater than the rate of formation, whereas the intensity of the S1-CN (f102-199) band increased progressively during ripening (data not shown). The pattern of hydrolysis of S1-CN was identical in cheese made with 0.1 µmol/L pepstatin and in the control cheese, except that the level of intact S1-CN was 44.9% for the former compared with 12.0% for the latter by 180 d of ripening. The peptide S1-CN (f24-199) continued to accumulate in cheeses made with 0.1 or 1.0 µmol/L pepstatin for up to 180 d (Figure 1c). The level of intact S1-CN in cheese made with 10.0 µmol/ L pepstatin was 91% at 180 d. This would indicate that approximately 9% of total S1-CN was hydrolyzed in cheese made with 10.0 µmol/L pepstatin during the 180-d ripening period. However, it is important to note that there were no detectable levels of S1-CN (f24-199) in this cheese during ripening. This would indicate a complete inhibition of chymosin-mediated hydrolysis of S1-CN at Phe23-Phe24 in cheese made with 10.0 µmol/ L pepstatin throughout ripening. The absence of S1-CN(f24-199) in the cheese made with 10.0 µmol/L pepstatin (coupled with the differences in levels of pH 4.6-SN/TN, see Table 3) at 1 d illustrates that inhibition of residual chymosin activity occurred extremely rapidly after pepstatin addition to the curds/whey mixture. The limited hydrolysis of S1-CN that occurred during ripening in the cheese made with 10.0 µmol/L pepstatin may have been due to activity of starter or NSLAB proteinases and peptidases or plasmin.
RP-HPLC Peptide Profiles
The RP-HPLC peptide profiles of the ethanol (70%)-soluble subfractions of the pH 4.6-soluble fractions of cheeses made with 0.0 (control), 0.1, 1.0, or 10.0 µmol/ L pepstatin at 21 and 180 d of ripening are shown in Figures 2a and b, respectively. There were large quantitative differences between the peptide profiles of the 4 cheeses at both 21 and 180 d of ripening. It appears that at 21 d, the greatest differences between the peptide profiles of the cheeses were in the retention time interval 28 to 45 min, whereas by 180 d of ripening, substantial differences also occurred in the longer retention time interval 45 to 60 min—possibly due to production of hydrophobic peptides. For the control cheese, the greatest quantitative change during ripening occurred in the 2 peptides eluting between 28 and 32 min. It is likely that these peptides are S1-CN (f1-9) and S1-CN (f1-13), which are breakdown products of S1-CN (f1-23) and have been identified in the 10-kDa ultrafiltration permeates of pH 4.6-soluble fractions of 9-mo-old Cheddar cheese (Singh et al., 1994). The small quantitative changes that occurred in the peptide pro-files of the cheese made with 10.0 µmol/L pepstatin during ripening occurred mainly in those peptides eluting between 45 and 60 min and may have been due to plasmin-mediated hydrolysis of ß-CN. Similar changes in peptide profiles in the long retention time region have been reported for Cheddar cheeses with elevated plasmin activity using the same HPLC method (Upadhyay et al., 2004b). The results are consistent with the observation that levels of pH 4.6-SN/TN in the cheese made with 10.0 µmol/L added pepstatin increased by only ~2.6-fold between 1 and 180 d of ripening (compared with ~5-fold for control cheese). Hydrolysis of ß-CN was the principal primary proteolytic event occurring in the cheese made with 10.0 µmol/L pepstatin during this time.
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Figure 2. Reversed-phase HPLC chromatograms of the ethanol (70%)-soluble subfractions of pH 4.6-soluble extracts of Cheddar cheeses made with 0.0 (control), 0.1, 1.0, or 10.0 µmol/L added pepstatin at 21 (a) and 180 (b) d of ripening.
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The score plot obtained from PC analysis of the peak height data from RP-HPLC of the ethanol (70%)-soluble subfractions of pH 4.6-soluble extracts from the cheeses is shown in Figure 3. Principal components 1 and 2 explained 41.1 and 21.5% of the total variation between the peptide profiles of the cheeses, respectively. Both PC1 and PC2 appear to have separated the samples on the basis of level of pepstatin addition and age; in general, the scores for both PC1 and PC2 increased with decreasing level of pepstatin addition and increasing age. Assuming an arbitrary linkage distance (squared Euclidean distance) cut-off of 8, then hierarchical cluster analysis arranged the cheeses into 5 distinct clusters on the basis of similarities in their peptide profiles (clusters are shown on the score plot). All cheeses had very similar peptide profiles at 1 d (chromatograms not shown); hence, all 4 cheeses were grouped within the same cluster (C1) at 1 d of ripening. Interestingly, cheese made with 10.0 µmol/L pepstatin was grouped within this cluster (C1) irrespective of age, reflecting the lack of primary (and consequently, secondary) proteolytic activity during ripening. The control cheese was grouped within separate clusters at 42, 90, and 180 d of ripening and the RP-HPLC peptide profiles of this cheese exhibited little similarity with those of cheeses made with 0.1, 1.0, or 10.0 µmol/L pepstatin from 42 d of ripening onwards. This reflects the substantial qualitative and quantitative differences observed between the peptide profiles of the control cheese and cheese made with 10.0 µmol/L pepstatin after only 42 d of ripening (Figure 3).
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Figure 3. Score plot obtained from principal component analysis of processed peak height data from reversed phase-HPLC of the ethanol (70%)-soluble subfractions of pH 4.6-soluble extracts of Cheddar cheeses made with 0.0 (control) (A), 0.1 (B), 1.0 (C), or 10.0 (D) µmol/ L added pepstatin at 1, 42, 90, and 180 d of ripening. Groupings on score plot (C1 to C5) indicate clusters as determined by hierarchical cluster analysis using an arbitrary linkage distance cut-off of 8.
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The factor loadings for each of the retention time classes on the PC1 and PC2 axes are shown in Figures 4a and b, respectively. All of the retention time classes were positively correlated with the PC1 axis, whereas only 4 of the retention time classes were negatively correlated with the PC2 axis. This corresponds well with the earlier observation that the scores for the cheeses on the PC1 and PC2 axes generally increased with decreasing level of pepstatin addition and increasing age. The retention time classes most highly correlated (factor loading 
0.90) with the PC1 and PC2 axes were those corresponding to peptides eluting at approximately 8, 30, 37, 38, 39, 43, and 47 min, respectively. Thus, while peptides across the entire profile were responsible for the differences between the cheeses, many of the peptides that differentiated the RP-HPLC profiles of the cheeses were eluted in the short- to intermediate-retention time classes (~25 to 45 min).
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Figure 4. Factor loadings calculated from correlation analysis of each of the retention time classes (x-axis) with PC1 (A) and PC2 (B) from principal component analysis of peak height data from reversed phase-HPLC of the ethanol (70%)-soluble subfractions of pH 4.6-soluble extracts of Cheddar cheeses made with 0.0 (control), 0.1, 1.0, or 10.0 µmol/L added pepstatin at 1, 42, 90, and 180 d of ripening.
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Total and Individual FAA
There were no significant (P > 0.05) differences between the levels of total FAA of any of the 4 cheeses at 1 d postmanufacture, with levels ranging from 1.61 to 1.96 mg of leucine/g of cheese (Table 3). The FAA levels increased in all 4 cheeses during ripening, reaching levels of 11.2, 9.78, 7.22, and 6.20 mg of leucine/g of cheese at 180 d for cheeses made with 0.0, 0.1, 1.0, or 10.0 µmol/L pepstatin, respectively. Significant (P 0.05) differences were evident in FAA levels between the 4 cheeses from 21 d of ripening onwards—the levels decreased with increasing level of pepstatin addition. Pepstatin addition had a significant (P < 0.0001) effect on FAA levels in each of the 3 trials, as did ripening time. The interaction between level of pepstatin addition and ripening time was also significant (P < 0.0001) for all 3 trials. Similar patterns in FAA levels were also reported by Lane et al. (1997) for Cheddar cheeses in which residual chymosin was partially inactivated by raising pH of curd/whey mixture to pH 7.0 after cutting the coagulum.
The principal amino acids present in each of the 4 cheeses at 180 d of ripening were glutamic acid, valine, leucine, phenylalanine, and lysine (Figure 5). In agreement with these results, glutamic acid, leucine, and phenylalanine were also reported to be the most abundant FAA in miniature Cheddar-type cheeses ripened at 8°C for 2 mo (O’Mahony et al., 2003). Shakeel-Ur-Rehman et al. (2004) also reported glutamic acid, valine, leucine, and phenylalanine to be the most abundant FAA in Cheddar cheeses ripened at 8°C for 180 d. With the exception of threonine, the levels of each of the individual FAA generally decreased with increasing level of pepstatin addition. This trend was most evident for aspartic acid, valine, leucine, phenylalanine, and lysine.
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Figure 5. Concentration of individual free amino acids in Cheddar cheeses made with 0.0 (control) (black), 0.1 (gray), 1.0 (diagonal lines), or 10.0 (white) µmol/L added pepstatin at 180 d of ripening.
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It is well known that peptidases of starter and NSLAB microorganisms are the principal agents responsible for liberation of FAA in Cheddar cheese during ripening (O’Keeffe et al., 1978; Fox and McSweeney, 1996; Lane and Fox, 1996, 1997). Incorporation of pepstatin into Cheddar cheese curd, at levels of up to 10.0 µmol/L of curds/whey mixture, has no effect on growth or survival of starter and NSLAB (J. A. O’Mahony and P. L. H. McSweeney, unpublished data, 2003). It should also be noted that microbial proteinase and peptidase activities in Cheddar cheese are not directly affected by pepstatin addition, as these enzymes are not aspartyl proteinases (Upadhyay et al., 2004a). Therefore, it may be inferred from the results that the lower levels of FAA in cheeses made with added pepstatin during ripening was due to limited availability of substrates for lactic acid bacteria (LAB) proteinase/peptidase activities. Such substrates normally constitute large and intermediate sized peptides produced by chymosin and plasmin (McSweeney, 2004), and are acted upon by LAB proteinases and peptidases in a sequential manner (Lane and Fox, 1997).
Insoluble Calcium Content of Cheeses
The insoluble calcium content (expressed as % of total calcium) of the cheeses at 1 d of ripening ranged from 65.6 to 74.4% for the control cheese and the cheese made with 10.0 µmol/L added pepstatin, respectively (Table 4). The slight differences in the insoluble calcium content between the cheeses at 1 d may have been due to the differences in moisture; the insoluble calcium content of the cheeses decreased with increasing moisture content. However, irrespective of the level of pepstatin addition, there was a significant (P 0.05) reduction in the insoluble calcium content of each of the 4 cheeses during the first 21 d of ripening. The insoluble calcium content of the cheeses remained relatively constant for the remainder of the ripening period. These results are in agreement with previous studies involving quantification of the changes in the insoluble calcium concentration of Cheddar cheese during ripening (Hassan et al., 2004; Lucey et al., 2005). The partial solubilization of CCP during the early stages of ripening is thought to be due to the attainment of pseudoequilibrium between the insoluble and soluble forms of calcium in cheese.
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Table 4. Insoluble calcium (expressed as a % of total calcium) content of Cheddar cheeses made with 0.0 (control), 0.1, 1.0, or 10.0 µmol/L added pepstatin at 1, 21, 42, 90, 120, and 180 d of ripening.1
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It is likely that solubilization of calcium associated with the para-CN matrix of the cheese curd (i.e., CCP) during this time (Table 4) increases the susceptibility of casein to proteolytic attack by chymosin. This phenomenon has been illustrated in milk (Fox, 1970) and has been suggested as a possible explanation for accelerated proteolysis in Mozzarella cheese with a reduced ratio of calcium to protein (Feeney et al., 2002; Joshi et al., 2003). In addition, rapid demineralization of curd during the cooking stage of manufacture (i.e., before whey drainage) has been associated with decreased levels of intact CN in 1-d-old Cheddar cheese (O’Keeffe et al., 1975). These authors postulated that the increased CN hydrolysis might be caused by solubilization of some CCP, which facilitates conformational change in the CN substrates, allowing greater access of chymosin to potential cleavage sites.
TPA
In general, the values for the TPA parameters hardness, cohesiveness, springiness, and chewiness decreased as ripening progressed (Table 5). Cheeses manufactured with 0.0 (control), 0.1, 1.0, or 10.0 µmol/ L pepstatin had hardness values of 189, 204, 207, and 233 N at 1 d of ripening, respectively. The higher initial (1 d) hardness, and indeed, springiness and chewiness values for Cheddar cheeses made with added pepstatin compared with the control cheese may be attributed to the lower moisture content of these cheeses (Table 2) or to differences in the levels of primary proteolysis (Table 3). It is known that moisture content and extent of primary proteolysis influence the rheological properties of cheese (Creamer and Olson, 1982; Fox et al., 2000; Watkinson et al., 2002; Guinee, 2003).
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Table 5. Texture profile analysis parameters hardness, cohesiveness, springiness, and chewiness for Cheddar cheeses made with 0.0 (control), 0.1, 1.0, or 10.0 µmol/L added pepstatin at 1, 21, 42, 90, 120, and 180 d of ripening.1
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There was a significant (P 0.05) reduction in the hardness values for all 4 cheeses between 1 and 21 d of ripening. The significant (P 0.05) reduction in hardness (i.e., softening) of the control cheese during this time was expected in accordance with the hypothesis from the work of Creamer and Olson (1982). Interestingly, the hardness, and indeed cohesiveness, springiness, and chewiness values of each of the 3 cheeses made with added pepstatin significantly (P 0.05) decreased during the first 21 d of ripening. It is clear from these results that even when hydrolysis of S1-CN at Phe23-Phe24 was completely inhibited (i.e., cheese made with 10 µmol/L pepstatin), there was still a significant softening of Cheddar cheese texture during the early stages of ripening. Hardness was much more highly correlated with the level of insoluble calcium than with that of intact S1-CN during the early stages of ripening (Table 6). In the case of the cheese made with 10.0 µmol/L pepstatin, hardness was not significantly correlated with the level of intact S1-CN, whereas there was a strong positive correlation between hardness and the level of insoluble calcium (r = 0.92, P 0.001). Assessment of the mean squares values showed that ripening time (subplot factor) was more important than level of pepstatin addition (main-plot factor) on influencing the TPA parameter hardness for cheeses made in each of the 3 trials.
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Table 6. Pearson’s correlation coefficients between hardness and intact S1-CN, intact ß-CN, pH 4.6-soluble nitrogen, total free amino acids, and insoluble calcium levels of Cheddar cheeses made with 0.0 (control), 0.1, 1.0, or 10.0 µmol/L added pepstatin at 2 different intervals during ripening.
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Lane et al. (1997) reported that TPA hardness (i.e., force at 70% compression) of Cheddar cheese made using a protocol modified to inactivate chymosin partially, with a water-SN level of 17%, was approximately 72 N compared with the control cheese, which had a water-SN level of 21% and a hardness value of 58 N at 180 d of ripening. These authors reported that the values for hardness, distance to fracture, force to fracture, and cohesiveness all decreased for each of the cheeses between 60 and 180 d of ripening. Irudayaraj et al. (1999) reported that hardness (at 20% compression) of full-(31%) and reduced- (21%) fat Cheddar cheese decreased during the first 30 d and then increased steadily during the remainder of ripening (210 d). Benech et al. (2003) also reported decreases in TPA fracturability and cohesiveness (at 20% compression) of Cheddar cheese during ripening. Sallami et al. (2004) reported that TPA hardness, fracturability, and springiness (at 20% compression) all decreased with progressive ripening of Cheddar cheese made with or without autolytic, proteolytic, or nisin-producing adjunct starter cultures. Interestingly, the results of Benech et al. (2003) and Sallami et al. (2004) show that the greatest decrease in each of the TPA parameters hardness, cohesiveness, fracturability, and springiness occurred during the first 30 to 60 d of ripening.
For this study, although the greatest change in hardness occurred during the first 21 d of ripening in all 4 cheeses, minor, but important changes in texture occurred throughout the remainder of the ripening period. For the control cheese and cheese made with 0.1 µmol/ L pepstatin, there was no significant (P > 0.05) change in hardness between 42 and 180 d of ripening. However, for cheeses made with 1.0 or 10.0 µmol/L pepstatin, the softening of texture continued throughout ripening. Hardness values decreased significantly (P 0.05) from 146 and 182 N at 42 d to 133 and 145 N at 180 d for cheeses made with 1.0 or 10.0 µmol/L pepstatin, respectively. Overall, the percentage decrease in hardness between 42 and 180 d was 3.1, 7.4, 8.9, and 20.3% for control cheese and cheeses made with 0.1, 1.0, or 10.0 µmol/L pepstatin, respectively. It appears that there was a significant (P 0.05) softening of Cheddar cheese texture between 42 and 180 d only when S1-CN hydrolysis was strongly retarded (or inhibited completely). This can also be seen from the negative correlation between level of intact S1-CN and hardness for the control cheese in the latter ripening time interval (42 to 180 d; Table 6). These findings are interesting in the context of the work conducted by Benech et al. (2003), who reported that cohesiveness decreased by 45 and 32% during 180 d of ripening in Cheddar cheeses made without nisin- (control) or with nisin-producing starter cultures, respectively. The corresponding values for decrease in fracturability during ripening were 64 and 46%, respectively. The control and nisin-containing cheeses had TCA-soluble nitrogen (as % of total nitrogen) levels of 10.4 and 14.2%, respectively, at 180 d of ripening. The level of phosphotungistic acid-soluble nitrogen (as % of total nitrogen) in the nisin-containing cheese was also approximately 1.6-fold higher than that in the control cheese at 180 d. The authors attributed the differences in textural properties to the increased levels of secondary proteolysis in the nisin-containing cheese; with each peptide bond hydrolyzed releasing 2 new charged groups (NH+3/COO–). It is believed that these ionic species compete for available water, reducing the "free" water content and restricting solvation of the para-CN matrix of the cheese resulting in increased hardness, cohesiveness, springiness, and fracturability over ripening (Creamer and Olson, 1982; Lawrence et al., 1987; Irudayaraj et al., 1999; Benech et al., 2003; Guinee, 2003; Lucey et al., 2003).
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CONCLUSIONS
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Addition of pepstatin to the curds/whey mixture at the start of cooking was a very effective means of reducing the level of residual chymosin activity in the resultant cheese and inhibiting chymosin-mediated hydrolysis of S1-CN. The chymosin-pepstatin complex was extremely stable during ripening at all levels of pepstatin addition. Increasing the level of pepstatin addition retarded primary and secondary proteolysis during ripening; however, pepstatin addition had a greater influence on primary than secondary proteolysis. The solubilization of CCP (insoluble form of calcium in cheese) during the first 21 d of ripening was unaffected by level of pepstatin addition. Hydrolysis of S1-CN at Phe23-Phe24 was not a prerequisite for the early softening of Cheddar cheese texture. The softening of Cheddar cheese texture during the early stages of ripening was more highly correlated with the concentration of insoluble calcium than with the level of intact S1-CN. It is concluded that softening of Cheddar cheese texture can occur early in ripening without S1-CN being hydrolyzed at Phe23-Phe24. We propose that this softening of texture is due largely to solubilization of some of the residual CCP associated with the para-CN matrix of the cheese.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
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J. A. O’Mahony gratefully acknowledges the financial support of a travel bursary from the National University of Ireland, which facilitated part of this research at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. The authors wish to thank John Hannon for his assistance with statistical analysis of the data and to acknowledge financial support from Dairy Management Inc.
Received for publication February 3, 2005.
Accepted for publication April 30, 2005.
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M. M. Milesi, P. L. H. McSweeney, and E. R. Hynes
Impact of Chymosin- and Plasmin-Mediated Primary Proteolysis on the Growth and Biochemical Activities of Lactobacilli in Miniature Cheddar-Type Cheeses
J Dairy Sci,
September 1, 2008;
91(9):
3277 - 3290.
[Abstract]
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J. Choi, D. S. Horne, M. E. Johnson, and J. A. Lucey
Effects of the Concentration of Insoluble Calcium Phosphate Associated with Casein Micelles on the Functionality of Directly Acidified Cheese
J Dairy Sci,
February 1, 2008;
91(2):
513 - 522.
[Abstract]
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J. A. O'Mahony, P. L. H. McSweeney, and J. A. Lucey
A model system for studying the effects of colloidal calcium phosphate concentration on the rheological properties of Cheddar cheese.
J Dairy Sci,
March 1, 2006;
89(3):
892 - 904.
[Abstract]
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TOP
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
