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1 Animal Welfare Program, The University of British Columbia, 2357 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4 Canada
2 Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Research Centre, Lethbridge, AB, T1J 4B1 Canada
Corresponding author: T. DeVries; e-mail: trevorjd{at}interchange.ubc.ca.
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ABSTRACT |
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 TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONCONCLUSIONSACKNOWLEDGEMENTSREFERENCES |
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Key Words: frequency of feed delivery • feeding behavior • dairy cow
Abbreviation key: 1x = feed delivery once a day, 2x = feed delivery twice a day, 4x = feed delivery 4 times a day
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INTRODUCTION |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONCONCLUSIONSACKNOWLEDGEMENTSREFERENCES |
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The majority of lactating dairy cows in North America are fed a TMR offered ad libitum. Nocek and Braund (1985) suggested that feeding a TMR is the optimal way to provide the balance of nutrients that ruminants need to maintain a stable and efficient microbial population. These researchers also indicated that the availability of the feed over time and distribution of intake over the course of the day may further contribute to the maintenance of a stable ruminal microbial population. Provision of the TMR in conventional feeding schedules of lactating dairy cattle for most dairy operations remains at twice per day (2x). However, many producers elect to feed their cows only once per day (1x) to reduce labor costs. The feeding behavior response elicited by cows to the delivery of fresh feed may, therefore, result in slug feeding when feed is only provided 1x, which could predispose a cow to subacute ruminal acidosis (Shaver, 2002). Because the delivery of feed stimulates feeding activity (DeVries and von Keyserlingk, 2005) and is also associated with increased aggressive behavior between animals (Jezierski and Podluzny, 1984), it follows that a low frequency of feed delivery may result in increased competition among cows. Furthermore, increased competition may lead to some cows modifying their feeding times to avoid aggressive interactions (Miller and Wood-Gush, 1991).
Alternatively, it could be hypothesized that with more frequent offerings of feed, the distribution of feeding time and intake would be more evenly spread throughout the day. Furthermore, a steady input of nutrients into the rumen over the course of the day would stabilize rumen pH (French and Kennelly, 1990), which may reduce the risk for subacute ruminal acidosis. There appears to be little work addressing the effects of frequency of feed delivery on the behavior of group-housed lactating dairy cattle, in particular, the distribution of daily feeding time and the level of competition at the feed bunk.
Questions can also be raised regarding the effect of frequency of feed delivery on the quality of the TMR available to the cows over the course of the day. Cows have been shown to sort preferentially for the grain component of a TMR, leaving the longer forage components. This behavior results in an increase in the fiber content of the remaining feed (Leonardi and Armentano, 2003), with the greatest effect thought to occur when frequency of feed delivery is low (Shaver, 2002).
Therefore, the first objective of this study was to examine how the frequency of feed delivery affects the behavior of group-housed lactating dairy cows. The second objective of this study was to examine how frequency of feed delivery affects the extent of feed sorting. These objectives were tested in 2 experiments. The first compared the effects of delivering feed 1x to 2x, and the second compared the effects of delivering feed 2x to delivering feed 4 times a day (4x).
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MATERIALS AND METHODS |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONCONCLUSIONSACKNOWLEDGEMENTSREFERENCES |
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The cows were housed in a free-stall barn located at The University of British Columbia Dairy Education and Research Center (Agassiz, BC, Canada) and were managed according to the guidelines set by the Canadian Council on Animal Care (1993). In both experiments, cows were fed ad libitum a TMR (Table 1
). In experiment 1, the TMR contained, on a DM basis, 51.2% concentrate and 48.8% forage; in experiment 2, the TMR contained, on a DM basis, 52.2% concentrate and 47.8% forage. Diets were formulated according to the NRC (2001) nutrient requirement recommendations for high-producing dairy cows. Cows had access to the feed bunk via a post-and-rail feed barrier (with a pendulous feed-rail) and had 0.6 m of feeding space per animal. In both experiments, feed push-ups occurred to ensure that feed was available to the cows for all hours in the day during which they were in their respective pen. Each cow had access to a free-stall that was deep bedded with sand. Animals were milked between 0500 and 0530 h in the morning and between 1700 and 1730 h in the afternoon. Milk yields were automatically recorded at each milking.
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Experiment 1.
Treatments were 1) delivery of feed 1x (at 0530 h) and 2) delivery of feed 2x (at 0530 and 1515 h). When groups were fed 1x, feed was pushed up at 1100, 1515, and 2230 h. When groups were fed 2x, feed was pushed up at 1100 and 2230 h.
Experiment 2.
Treatments were 1) delivery of feed 2x (at 0530 and 1515h) and 2) delivery of feed 4x (at 0530, 1100, 1515, and 2230 h). When groups were fed 2x, feed was pushed up at 1100 and 2230 h. No feed push-up occurred when cows were fed 4x.
In experiment 1, for the 1x treatment, the TMR was mixed in the morning immediately prior to its delivery to the cows. For the 2x treatment, in both experiments, the TMR for the 0530-h feeding was mixed immediately prior to its delivery to the cows. The TMR for the 1515-h feeding was mixed at approximately 1030 h and kept in the mixer wagon until the time of feed delivery. In experiment 2, for the 4x treatment, the TMR was mixed twice daily. The TMR for the 0530- and 1100-h feedings was mixed immediately prior to the 0530-h feeding. The TMR used in the 1100-h feeding was kept in the mixer wagon until the time of delivery. The TMR for the 1515-and 2230-h feedings was mixed at approximately 1030 h. The TMR for the 1515-h feeding was then kept in the mixer wagon until the time of delivery; the TMR for the 2230-h feeding was stored in a bunker silo until approximately 1900 h, at which time it was transferred to the mixer wagon and was kept there until it was delivered to the cows.
Feed Sampling and Analysis
For both experiments, representative samples of the TMR were taken for each group at the time of each feed delivery, feed push-up, and from the orts for d 1, 3, 5, and 7 of each treatment period in each experiment. The TMR was subsampled by taking grab samples from 3 different locations along the entire feed bunk. Care was taken that each grab sample represented the top, middle, and bottom of the TMR along the feed bunk. Dry matter content of the samples was determined by oven-drying at 60°C for 3 d. The dried samples were then ground to pass through a 1-mm screen (standard model 4 Wiley mill; Arthur H. Thomas Co., Philadelphia, PA). Analytical DM content of the samples was determined by drying at 135°C for 3 h (AOAC, 1990). The OM content was calculated as the difference between DM and ash contents; ash was determined by combustion at 550°C for 5 h. The NDF and ADF contents were determined using an ANKOM200 Fiber Analyzer (ANKOM Technology, Fairport, NY) according to the methodology supplied by the company, which is based on the methods described by Van Soest et al. (1991). Heat-stable 
-amylase and sodium sulfite were used in the NDF procedure. For the measurement of CP (N x 6.25), content of N in the samples was determined by flash combustion using a model NA 2100 Protein CHN Analyzer (Carlo Erba Instruments, Milan, Italy).
Dry matter intake for each group for each day on treatment was recorded by subtracting the DM weight of the orts from the DM weight of the delivered feed. The daily orts averaged 5.2 ± 5.1% and 7.9 ± 4.8% (mean ± SD) of the delivered feed provided over the course of experiments 1 and 2, respectively.
Behavioral Recording
All behaviors were monitored using time-lapse video equipment. The feeding and lying behavior of the cows were recorded continuously for 7 d per treatment. The aggressive behavior of the cows was recorded continuously for the last 3 d of the observation period for each treatment. The animals were videotaped using 2 video cameras (Panasonic WV-BP330; Osaka, Japan) per pen, a time-lapse videocassette recorder (Panasonic AG-6540), and a video multiplexer (Panasonic WJ-FS 216). For each pen, a video camera was located 6 m above the feed bunk and another 10 m above the lying areas of the pen. Red lights (100 W) were used to facilitate recording at night. Individual animals were identified with unique alphanumeric symbols made with hair dye (Clairol’s Nice and Easy # 122, Natural Black, or Clairol’s L’image Maxiblonde, depending on hair color; Stamford, CT) on the back of the cows.
Measuring feeding behavior.
The feeding behavior of individual cows was scored from video using instantaneous scan sampling once every 10 min. For each scan, an animal was recorded as feeding when its head was completely past the feed rail and over the feed. These scans were then used to calculate the total time spent feeding by multiplying the number of scans by 10 (Endres et al., 2005). The time spent feeding was calculated for each cow for each treatment day. This measure of feeding behavior has previously been shown to be the most repeatable measure of feeding behavior and sensitive for detecting treatment differences (DeVries et al., 2003b). Additionally, to detect changes in the distribution of daily feeding time, we calculated the feeding time for the cows during the daytime and early evening hours (0600 to 2000 h), the late evening and early morning hours (2000 to 0600 h), and for the 90 min after the time of feed delivery, which was identified as a period of peak feeding activity.
Measuring lying behavior.
Daily lying times of individual cows were obtained from the video recordings using instantaneous scan sampling once every 10 min. These scans were then used to calculate the total time spent lying by multiplying the number of scans by 10 (Fregonesi et al., 2004). The time spent lying was calculated for each cow for each treatment day. In addition to this, the length of time it took cows to lie down upon return from the milking parlor (i.e., latency to lie) was obtained. This was quantified by continuously watching the video recordings from the time the cows returned from the parlor until they lay down in one of the free stalls.
Measuring aggressive behavior.
Total daily number of aggressive displacements at the feed bunk was recorded. A displacement was noted when a butt or a push from the actor (instigator) resulted in the complete withdrawal of the reactor’s head from beneath the feed rail (DeVries et al., 2004).
Data Analysis
For the analysis of feeding behavior, DMI, lying behavior, and aggressive behavior, pen was considered the experimental unit; measures from multiple days and cows were averaged to create one observation per pen per treatment. For experiment 1, there was an interaction between treatment and the milking time (i.e., a.m. or p.m.) for the latency-to-lie down data; consequently, these data were summarized and analyzed separately for each milking. Treatment effects on the feeding behavior measures, DMI, lying behavior measures, and number of displacements were tested by one-sample paired t-tests with 3 df. Least squares means and standard errors were determined using the LSMEANS and STDERR statement in PROC GLM (SAS, 1999). Overall, treatment response was tested using pen as the experimental unit. However, we predicted that cows with low feeding times and cows that were displaced from feed bunk most often would be most affected by treatment; therefore, we used a within-cow test to examine this assumption. Feeding times [for the 90 min after feed delivery and for the late evening and early morning hours (2000 to 0600 h)] and the frequency at which cows were displaced from the feed bunk during the 2 treatments, in each experiment, were compared using the regression procedure of SAS (1999). To determine whether cows changed on average, the intercept was tested for difference from zero, and to determine the extent of the change relative to the initial value, the slope was tested for difference from one.
For analysis of the NDF content of the TMR samples, pen was considered the experimental unit; measures from multiple days were averaged to create one observation per pen per treatment per sampling time. Treatment effects were tested in a mixed model. Compound symmetry was selected as the covariance structure on the basis of best fit using the PROC MIXED procedure of SAS (1999). Subsequent analyses were performed with PROC GLM, which uses the compound symmetry structure as a default and allowed us to model the sampling time as a continuous variable. The model tested the terms for pen (3 df), treatment (1 df), linear effect of sampling time (1 df), quadratic effect of sampling time (1 df), and the interaction between treatment and the quadratic effect of sampling time (1 df) against the residual error (32 df). Least squares means and standard errors were determined using the LSMEANS and STDERR statement in PROC GLM.
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RESULTS |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONCONCLUSIONSACKNOWLEDGEMENTSREFERENCES |
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). This increase was primarily attributed to the tendency for cows to increase their feeding time during the late evening and early morning hours (i.e., 2000 to 0600 h). Linear regression was used to determine how individual cows changed their feeding times during these hours. Feeding times during this period were highly related for the 2 treatment conditions (R2 = 0.54; P < 0.001). The slope (0.76 ± 0.10) for the linear relationship was <1 (P = 0.02), and the intercept (21.01 ± 5.66) was >0 (P < 0.001). Despite finding no difference in feeding time during the daytime and early evening hours, there were differences in the distribution of the feeding time during these times. Cows tended to spend more time feeding during the 90 min following delivery of feed when they were fed 1x than when they were fed 2x (Table 2). These differences are illustrated in the feed bunk attendance patterns (Figure 1a). Linear regression was used to determine how individual cows changed their feeding times during these peak feeding periods. Feeding times during this period were highly related for the 2 treatment conditions (R2 = 0.51; P < 0.001). The slope (0.52 ± 0.07) for the linear relationship was <1 (P < 0.001), and the intercept (18.40 ± 4.04) was >0 (P < 0.001).
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). Most of this increase was the result of an increase in feeding time during the late evening and early morning hours. Linear regression was used to determine how individual cows changed their feeding times during these hours. Feeding times during this period were highly related for the 2 treatment conditions (R2 = 0.46; P < 0.001). The slope (0.81 ± 0.13) for the linear relationship was not different from one (P = 0.16), and the intercept (26.27 ± 7.33) was >0 (P < 0.001). As in experiment 1, despite finding no difference in feeding time during the daytime and early evening hours, there were differences in the distribution of the feeding time during these hours. Cows spent more time feeding during the 90 min following the delivery of feed when fed 2x than when fed 4x (Table 2). These differences are illustrated in the feed bunk attendance patterns (Figure 1b). Linear regression was used to determine how individual cows changed their feeding times during these peak feeding periods. Feeding times during this period were highly related for the 2 treatment conditions (R2 = 0.66; P < 0.001). The slope (0.60 ± 0.06) for the linear relationship was <1 (P < 0.001), and the intercept (11.19 ± 3.27) was >0 (P = 0.001). There was no difference in DMI when groups were fed 1x compared with when they were fed 2x (24.6 ± 0.7 vs. 24.1 ± 0.7 kg/d per cow, respectively; P = 0.7). There was also no difference in DMI when groups were fed 2x compared with when they were fed 4x (22.9 ± 0.4 vs. 22.2 ± 0.4 kg/d per cow, respectively; P = 0.3).
Lying Behavior
During both experiments 1 and 2, the frequency of feed delivery had no effect on the length of time cows spent lying per day (Table 3). In experiment 1, there was no effect of treatment on the pattern of lying time throughout the day (Figure 2a), but when cows were fed 1x, they took longer to lie down after the a.m. milking compared with when they were fed 2x (Table 3). In experiment 2, the pattern of lying time throughout the day was affected by the frequency of feed delivery. When cows were fed 4x, they showed 4 periods of lying activity compared with the 2 extended periods of lying activity when they were fed 2x (Figure 2b). It is also interesting to note that when the cows received feed 4x, they had a decreased latency to lie down after milking compared with when they were fed 2x (Table 3).
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Similarly, for experiment 2, there was also no difference in the frequency of displacements at the feed bunk when cows were fed 2x compared with 4x (7.5 vs. 7.7 displacements/d per cow; SE = 1.1; P = 0.9). Linear regression for this experiment also indicated that the frequency of displacements was highly related for the 2 treatments (R2 = 0.43; P < 0.001) and varied between cows depending on treatment. The slope (0.64 ± 0.11) for the linear relationship was <1 (P = 0.002), and the intercept (2.94 ± 0.96) was >0 (P = 0.004).
Fiber Content of the TMR
For experiment 1, analysis of NDF content of the TMR over the day indicated no effect of treatment; however, there was an effect of sampling time (linear effect: P < 0.001; quadratic effect: P = 0.003). Further, there was an interaction (P = 0.017) between treatment and the quadratic effect of sampling time, which indicated that the NDF content of the TMR in the feed bunk increased in a curvilinear manner throughout the day for both the 1x (y = 0.53x2 – 1.57x + 35.78; R2 = 0.98) and 2x (y = 0.39x2 – 1.58x + 36.62; R2 = 0.83) treatments; however, the effect was greatest when feed was delivered 1x (Figure 3a).
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). Changes in the forage-to-concentrate ratio of the TMR were estimated by calculating the forage-to-concentrate ratio of the orts. This calculation was performed using the initial NDF content values for the feed components and the final NDF content of the orts. In experiment 1, the TMR for both 1x and 2x treatments initially had a forage-to-concentrate ratio, on a DM basis, of 49:51; however, the remaining orts for the 1x and 2x treatments had a calculated ratio of 63:37 and 55:45, respectively. In experiment 2, the TMR for both 2x and 4x treatments initially had a forage-to-concentrate ratio, on a DM basis, of 48:52. The orts were calculated to have a forage-to-concentrate ratio of 58:42 and 57:43 for the 2x and 4x treatments, respectively.
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DISCUSSION |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONCONCLUSIONSACKNOWLEDGEMENTSREFERENCES |
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In the present study, it was evident that group-housed dairy cows increased their daily feeding time with increased frequency of feed delivery. This finding contradicts previous work reported by Phillips and Rind (2001), who compared the effects of 1x and 4x feeding on group-housed cattle and found no effect on daily feeding time. This discrepancy in results may be attributed to differences in experimental methodologies and conditions present in the 2 studies. Phillips and Rind (2001) based their feeding behavior data on only 1 d of observations per treatment. Unfortunately, because there is considerable within-cow day-to-day variation in feeding behavior data, statistical significance in studies based on 1 d of data can only be achieved when treatment differences are large (Dado and Allen, 1994). Further, the DMI and production level of the cows were very low in comparison with that observed in the present study. Cows with low DMI and milk production may not have the same motivation to feed and, therefore, may not respond to increased frequency of feed delivery by increasing their feeding time as much as cows with high DMI and milk production. Time spent feeding has also been shown to be correlated with milk production (Shabi et al., 2005). It follows that milk production may be increased by encouraging cows to spend more time feeding (Shabi et al., 2005). Therefore, it is possible that the high feeding times observed in the present study in response to high frequency of feed delivery could translate into increased milk production over a longer period of time.
In both experiments 1 and 2, most of the daily increase in feeding time in response to increased frequency of feed delivery was the result of an increase in feeding time during the late evening and early morning hours (i.e., 2000 to 0600 h). This result agrees with the finding of Phillips and Rind (2001), who reported that cows that were fed frequently tended to spend less time feeding in the morning and a longer time feeding in the late evening.
Several researchers have shown that increasing frequency of feed delivery can reduce the diurnal fluctuations in rumen pH. French and Kennelly (1990) found that the postprandial pH in dairy cows fed concentrate 2x was depressed for a few hours before returning to the prefeeding values. In that same study, the postprandial decline in rumen pH was virtually eliminated when animals were fed concentrate 12x/d. Similarly, Shabi et al. (1999) compared 2x to 4x feeding of a TMR and found that the diurnal variation in ruminal pH was significantly reduced when lactating cows were fed 4x. In the present study, increasing the frequency of feed delivery resulted in a more even distribution of feeding time over the course of the day, which may contribute to decreased diurnal variation in ruminal pH and possibly reduce the risk for subacute ruminal acidosis.
The regression analysis of the data from the peak feeding periods in experiments 1 and 2 indicated that those cows with high feeding times when fed 1x and 2x decreased their feeding times when fed 2x and 4x, respectively. However, it also indicated that those cows with low feeding times when fed 1x and 2x increased their feeding times during these periods when fed 2x and 4x, respectively. These results indicate that increasing the frequency of feed delivery allows for more equal access to fresh feed. This is particularly important, as it has been demonstrated that the delivery of fresh feed has the greatest effect in terms of stimulating feeding activity in group-housed dairy cattle (DeVries and von Keyserlingk, 2005).
In both experiments 1 and 2, group feed intakes were used to calculate the average DMI per cow per treatment, and we found no effect of treatment on this measure for either experiment. However, we caution the interpretation of these results, as these experiments were designed to test predictions concerning feeding behavior and do not provide a strong test of intake differences. The regression analysis of the feeding behavior data indicated that cows varied in their distribution of daily feeding time, and this same variation may also have occurred in the distribution of DMI.
It is interesting to note that in both experiments, despite the increases in feeding time with increased frequency of feed delivery, there was no change in total daily lying time. This result indicates that with increased frequency of feed delivery, cows are able to increase the amount of time that they spend feeding and reduce the amount of time that they spend idly waiting for feed or to access the feed bunk. The daily distribution of lying time was, however, influenced by frequency of feed delivery. In experiment 1, the cows took 13 min longer to lie down after the a.m. milking when fed 1x compared with when fed 2x. This reflected the tendency for cows to spend a longer time feeding during the 90-min period following feed delivery when they were fed 1x. Interestingly, the latency to lie down after the p.m. milking was not different between the 1x and 2x treatments. This is most likely due to the fact that when cows were fed 2x, they had >90 min of access to their second daily delivery of feed prior to going to the milk parlor. In experiment 2, when the cows were fed 2x, they took 11 min longer to lie down after milking compared with when they were fed 4x. Again, this reflects the fact that when the cows were fed 4x, they reduced the time they spent feeding during the 90-min period following feed delivery. This further demonstrates that the cows more evenly distributed their feeding time over the course of the day when feed was delivered at a higher frequency.
The frequency of feed delivery did not affect the daily incidence of aggressive interactions at the feed bunk in either experiment. This result agrees with the finding of Phillips and Rind (2001), who reported no effect of frequency of feed delivery on the daily number of aggressive interactions. Despite this, the regression analyses undertaken in both experiments indicated that the cows in the present study that were displaced least often from the feed bunk during the low frequency of feed delivery treatment were displaced at a slightly higher frequency when exposed to the higher frequency of feed delivery treatments. The analyses also indicated that the cows that were displaced at the highest rate during the low frequency treatment, in each experiment, were displaced much less frequently when exposed to the higher frequency of feed delivery treatments. Therefore, the subordinate cows were not displaced as frequently when they were fed more often. This finding indicates that increasing the frequency of feed delivery may be particularly useful in allowing all cows to feed when they want to, without the fear of being displaced.
Leonardi et al. (2005) suggest that longer particles are typically higher in NDF concentration than the TMR; therefore, refusal of long particles can reduce total NDF intake. Further, several researchers have demonstrated that sorting can be signified by disparities between NDF concentrations in the diet and the orts (Kononoff et al., 2003; Kononoff and Heinrichs, 2003; Onetti et al., 2004). Therefore, to assess the extent of sorting of the TMR in the present study, the NDF content of the TMR in the feed bunk was measured throughout the day. The analyses demonstrated that the NDF content of the TMR in the feed bunk increased in a curvilinear manner throughout the day for all treatments in both experiments. Similarly, in a study by Kononoff et al. (2003), where cows were fed 1x, it was demonstrated that the NDF content of the feed present in the bunk increased throughout the day following the initial feed delivery, indicating that feeding sorting had occurred.
In the present study, comparison of the calculated forage-to-concentrate ratio of the delivered feed and the orts in both treatments in each experiment also provides further evidence that sorting of the diet can lead to the cows consuming an inconsistent ration, as suggested by Stone (2004). Sorting typically occurs when cows discriminate against the longer forage components, resulting in some cows consuming much more grain than intended (Leonardi and Armentano, 2003). It is believed that cows consuming the increased amounts of grain and low amounts of fiber in situations where sorting behavior is evident are at increased risk for subacute ruminal acidosis (Cook et al., 2004; Stone, 2004). Alternatively, sorting of the TMR can reduce the quality of the feed, particularly in the later hours past the time of feed delivery, as observed in the present study. This may be detrimental for those cows that do not have access to feed at the time when it is delivered. In such cases, these cows may not be able to maintain adequate nutrient intake to maintain high levels of milk production. The results of the present study indicate that increasing the frequency of feed delivery allows for more equal access to feed. The regression analyses of the feeding data during both the post feed delivery and peak feeding periods and the late evening and early morning hours indicated that the higher frequency of feeding treatment, in each experiment, resulted in more equal feeding times between cows during these periods. This result coupled with the finding that subordinate cows were not displaced as frequently when fed more often, indicate that providing feed more frequently may improve access to feed for all cows, especially during peak feeding periods when fresh feed is available. Therefore, higher frequencies of feed delivery have the potential to reduce the variation in diet quality consumed by the cows.
Improving access to feed may be particularly important when feed is delivered at low frequencies. In experiment 1, the interaction between the TMR sampling time and frequency of feed delivery indicated that more sorting occurred when feed was delivered 1x. This translated into the orts containing 8% more forage when the cows were fed 1x compared with 2x. This result supports the suggestion by Shaver (2002) that the effect of sorting is greater when frequency of feed delivery is low. Therefore, the amount of sorting of a TMR by lactating dairy cows can be reduced by increasing the frequency of feed delivery from 1x to 2x.
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CONCLUSIONS |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONCONCLUSIONSACKNOWLEDGEMENTSREFERENCES |
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONCONCLUSIONSACKNOWLEDGEMENTSREFERENCES |
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Received for publication May 3, 2005. Accepted for publication June 23, 2005.
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REFERENCES |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONCONCLUSIONSACKNOWLEDGEMENTSREFERENCES |
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P. Mantysaari, H. Khalili, and J. Sariola Effect of feeding frequency of a total mixed ration on the performance of high-yielding dairy cows. J Dairy Sci, November 1, 2006; 89(11): 4312 - 4320. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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T. J. DeVries and M. A. G. von Keyserlingk Feed stalls affect the social and feeding behavior of lactating dairy cows. J Dairy Sci, September 1, 2006; 89(9): 3522 - 3531. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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J. M. Huzzey, T. J. DeVries, P. Valois, and M. A. G. von Keyserlingk Stocking Density and Feed Barrier Design Affect the Feeding and Social Behavior of Dairy Cattle J Dairy Sci, January 1, 2006; 89(1): 126 - 133. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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